PART II: THE TREATISE
CHAPTER THREE: THE BOOK
Bearings
The
previous chapters provided a short biographical sketch of Garbett's life up
until the publication of the Treatise
and an insight into his religious outlook. This sketch will be extended in the
last three chapters of this dissertation which will deal with the reception of
his ideas, his further writings and the manner of his death. Until then I want
to concentrate on an investigation of the arguments put forward in the Treatise itself. The next three chapters
are specifically concerned with the setting of the Treatise, discussing preliminaries such as publication details,
Garbett's motivations for writing the book, the construction of his main
argument, the setting of his categories as well as the definition of some
central concepts. The purpose is to set the scene for a discussion of Garbett's
architectural values which will occupy parts III & IV.
Publication details
The
first edition of Garbett's Rudimentary
Treatise on The Principles of Design in Architecture, As Deducible From Nature
and Exemplified in The Works of The Greek and Gothic Architects, is a
single octavo volume with a brick-red cloth cover decorated with an embossed
border ornament and centred by a sticker which gives the title and the price of
2 shillings.
From its appearance in 1850, when it
was published by John Weale, the book enjoyed nine English editions, the last
one appearing in 1906. The Virtue Brothers & Co, who had taken over the Rudimentary Series from John Weale during the late
fifties or early sixties, brought out the second and third editions in 1863 and
1867. They were responsible for resetting the book, making it more compact but
otherwise changed nothing. During the seventies they must have passed the rights
on to Lockwood & Co. who printed the last 6 editions.
[1]
The text was never altered beyond the correction of errata in the first edition
and the use of a more compact type-face.
[2]
In 1853 the American John Bullock
published The History and Rudiments of
Architecture, an anthology of abridged texts from volumes 16-19 in Weale's Rudimentary Series which, apart from
Garbett's text, included W.H. Leeds' The
Orders and Their Aesthetic Principles and T. Bury's Styles of Architecture. The work, obviously meant as a convenient
compendium of architectural knowledge, was offered for sale for 75 cts. and
accompanied by a warning: We have dealt
freely with our authors, in attempting to "Americanize" the borrowed
English material.[3] This
publication helps to emphasise that the Treatise was
conceived as part of a program of architectural education which included W.H.
Leeds on the Orders and T. Bury on Style. It is clear from the preface of
Garbett's book that the reader was assumed to have read the earlier and
therefore complementary volumes of the series.
[4]
Even if Garbett's Treatise started
leading its own life after publication, it was almost certainly planned within
the context of the series. Similarly, there can be no doubt that Weale had
meant the Rudimentary Series to contribute to the professionalisation of
architecture.
The Treatise must have been well-respected to have gone through so many
editions. Whether it was also used in the way that the series intended, namely
for use in schools etc., is more difficult to determine. If that was the case,
the real influence the book must have had on young architects and designers
would have been considerable. As far as The United States is concerned, it is
known that Ralph Waldo Emerson actually recommended Garbett's Treatise to be taken up in a Lyceum
Library. Emerson's efforts to broadcast the book may also help to account for
the numerous copies of the Treatise
to be found listed in the National Union
Catalogue.[5]
Another point worth mentioning is
that Garbett's work was conceived of in two volumes. The book is always
referred to as numbers 18 & 19 of the Rudimentary Series. As the two
volumes were never, as far as I have been able to determine, bound separately,
this detail must refer to a conceptual division into a speculative part and an
historical or exemplary part. This division, echoed in the title, leads one to
suspect that the author's intentions may at one time have been more extensive.
It seems likely that the publisher had reserved the double space within the
series before the work had been completed. This implies not only that the work
had been specifically planned for the series and consequently accepted for
publication before it was fully completed, but also that the end result was
smaller and/or more homogenous than originally projected.
The title-page and the
title: an aggravation of exactness
[6]
Thrice happy book! thou
wilt have one page, at least, within thy covers which ...ignorance cannot
misrepresent.
[7]
The length of Garbett's
title, although not exceptional for the period, speaks of an ambition to be
exact and scientific.
[8]
Each phrase has its place within a deliberate sequence. Much like Lawrence
Stern saw the marbled page in his Tristram
Shandy as a motley emblem of his
work, the title-page of Garbett's Treatise
is emblematic of the book representing a diagrammatic and strongly scaled-down
map of the landscape Garbett wants the reader to traverse. In the most
generalised terms it expresses Garbett's purpose, outlines the contours of his
subject and weighs the relative significance of each intention. Like the
figures in a 15th-century altarpiece the words of the title are disposed according
to a hierarchy in which their respective positions and typographical sizes are
determined by their symbolic importance and like a good portrait, all the
details are so arranged so as to lead to the focal point of the picture, the
central issue, which is:
ARCHITECTURE.
This
is the focal point to which every excursion will lead and to which everything
else must be related. The phrase The
Principles of Design takes second place in size but is positioned above the
subject: the securing of principles of design with regard to architecture is
the book's primary objective. The word design, as we shall see later on, must
be understood in both the artistic as well as the metaphysical sense, denoting
both the process of designing buildings, but also seeking out the purposes
underlying their form.
The phrase Rudimentary Treatise takes third place in size and is situated
right at the top. The word Rudimentary tells us of course about the publisher's
intention of including the book in a series in which all the titles begin with
that label. As such the phrase has a pedagogic and commercial purpose. The book
was after all meant to provide a definite step in the education of a student of
architecture. The fact that the book was part of a series would go some way to
ensure its commercial success. Because of Garbett's understanding of his task,
however, the word rudimentary takes on a greater meaning than Weale's
commercial instinct and didactic ambitions. Rudiments speak of a subject in
terms of its irreducible elements: the very foundations of thought and
experience; the word constitutes a proposal to reduce architecture to its
universal elements, there where architecture can be shown to be dependent on
nature and where it mixes with experience generally.
The phrases: As Deducible from Nature & Exemplified
in the works of the Greek and Gothic Architects, describe both Garbett's
method of inquiry as well as giving a glimpse of the conceptual framework to
which he refers experience. He deliberately speaks, not of Greek and Gothic
architecture, but -and the difference is fundamental to his thinking- of the
works of Greek and Gothic architects. The history of architecture is composed
of- and calibrated according to the achievements of individuals. The phrase
expresses the view, common at the time, that all great works of art, that is all works of genius, exhibit a conceptual unity that only a single individual
can provide.
The deducibility from nature shows
his mathematical conception of all experience. Everything can be reduced to
elements which can be added and subtracted. Garbett sees nature as essentially
mechanical and therefore understandable; her laws, which can be expressed
mathematically, can be applied to moral activity through a process of
sophisticated analogies.
The
sequence of the phrases in the title is also carefully thought out to
correspond to the progress of Garbett's argument: first he will establish the
fact that architecture is based on principles. Then he will deduce those
principles from nature and, having deduced them, he will show the reader that
the world has always looked like that when seen through the eyes of true artists, which is exactly what his
analysis of the remains of the works of the Greek and Gothic architects will
testify.
The wording and the
careful structuring of the title allies the author to a fashion which talks of
the humanities in terms of certainties and boasts of a strict scientific
Methodism. The title takes its cue from doctrines belonging both to the sphere
of religious as well as scientific belief, doctrines which find their logical
justification within the field of natural theology. The proximity of science and
religion in natural theology bespeak their common aesthetic. Garbett's title
reveals an umbilical relationship to both natural science and natural theology.
But that is hardly surprising, in 1850 the two were not separated to the degree
they are now.
[9]
A significant aspect of the Treatise
is that it is to some extent able to reveal how science and religion were seen
to be largely interchangeable, how they appeared to imitate each other and how
science and religion infected other
theoretical disciplines.
If the ambition to be exact and
therefore scientific is most audible in the title of the book, then the
theological paradigm is most clearly visible in the structure of its contents.
The structure of The Seven Lamps
The
structuring of Ruskin's Seven Lamps of
Architecture is both fluid and novel; brilliant in its careful positioning of
the issues. For example, even though the picturesque is defined as a form of
parasitical sublimity, Ruskin's treatment of the concept is not appended to the
Lamp of Power merely for the sake of that connection. Instead it is placed with
far greater effect before the famous passage concerning restoration of
buildings in the Lamp of Memory. Everything has its necessary place in the
argument and nothing appears to have been added on as the result of an
afterthought or a hasty impulse. This is how Ruskin is able to sweep his reader
along. Ruskin allows the illustration to serve the argument, and rarely falls
into the trap of letting the illustration lead the argument.
Moral values, such as sacrifice,
obedience, memory, power, truth etc. were seen by him to embody the proper
objectives of architecture. That was not new. The novelty was that they were
explicitly used in The Seven Lamps to
determine the scope of each of the essays or lamps. This approach, which was
prepared in the first volumes of Modern
Painters, gives the book the character of a religious tract, a collection
of sermons on the theme of architecture, rather than a body of architectural
prescriptions with which the architect could create a new style. The Seven Lamps of Architecture
represent a new form of theory in that the book attempted to affect the
attitude of the architect to his task. The architectural sermons were meant to
strengthen the architect's moral fibre, his whole outlook on life.
Ruskin's radical deviation from the
conventional structure of an architectural treatise and the apparent ease with
which each subject flows into the next gives the Seven Lamps of Architecture a literary and rhetorical
sophistication, to which few other treatises could aspire. That literary
sophistication brought the discussion of architecture onto a different, far
more populist level.
Bartholomew’s Specifications
The
structure of Alfred Bartholomew's Essay
on the Decline of Excellence in the Structure and in the Science of Modern
English Buildings constitutes another extreme. The essay is built up of a
series of numbered aphorisms, each containing a single wisdom justified by the
statement that one should never attempt
to describe in one paragraph, several things of different qualities..[which]
for the saving of a few common words, great ambiguity, if not contradiction is
the almost constant result.[10]
Repetition is excused and even glorified as an inevitable accessory to useful
division. The whole point of these aphorisms is that a clerk or amanuensis can be set to transcribe such articles from one
or several of the specifications as the practitioner may esteem most. The
result is an incredible sequence of short chapters. The presentation of the
contents of Bartholomew's Essay takes
up no less than 7 pages. The chapter-headings refer not to page numbers but to
sections and paragraphs; there is not a page number to be found in the whole
book! That is all part of the cult of practicality which governs Bartholomew's
thinking. The word practical is, as far as Bartholomew is concerned, an
adjective which raises its object to a higher level of aesthetic completion.
Unfortunately Bartholomew's cult of
practicality is somewhat hampered by the impulsive and chaotic nature of his
own mind. The actual sequence of chapters appears to follow no other model than
the associative train of Bartholomew's impulses. That is not altogether true.
There is a rudimentary order common to architectural treatises for obvious
reasons. It is the order whereby theoretical discussion attempts a procedural
resemblance with actual building practices, following the sequence of steps
employed in erecting a house from the foundations upwards. This natural
sequence is frequently interrupted however, by impulsive excursions in
completely different directions. An example is the chapter providing a lengthy
annotated bibliography between a chapter entitled Of the fondness which many employees have for deceiving themselves
relative to the probable cost of a building and the important chapter Of Foundations. Elsewhere he suddenly
launches into the sad state of contemporary English building practices, or the
merits of certain building-styles and sketching plans for the establishment of
an architectural college. This recipe for chaos is to some extent remedied by
the general index provided at the back of the book, which also gives the essay
an encyclopaedic quality without the advantage of alphabetical order.
Bartholomew's approach was inspired by the wish to be practical and immediately
useful to the practising architect. His approach is hampered by the fact that
in its piecemeal structuring it resembles a collection of shards rather than
the complete vase. It is not able to build a complete argument whereas the
ingredients for such an argument are all present. In many respects it was a
revolutionary book with many very novel ideas. Having said that many of those
ideas had to be reassembled by Garbett to build a more complete system of
thought.
Garbett and Fergusson’s Historical Inquiry
Garbett
was not always able to appreciate Ruskin's subtleties of sequence and
structure. This is shown by his treatment of the picturesque. With regard to
the definition of the concept of the picturesque, Garbett echoed Ruskin's ideas
almost verbatim. Garbett, however, did allow himself to be led by the
traditional juxtaposition between the Picturesque and the Sublime. As a result
his discussion of the picturesque is appended as a mere afterthought to his
treatment of the sublime and appears badly understood. Garbett's Treatise is compositionally altogether
more rigid than Ruskin's Seven Lamps
and rhetorically much less refined. The difference in structure between the Treatise and The Seven Lamps was deliberate however. Garbett quite consciously did
not follow Ruskin's sequences and divisions; he did not want moral icons to
determine the whole of his argument. Neither did he want to fall into the
impractical cult of practicality with which Alfred Bartholomew launched his
bible of arbitrarily arranged wisdom. Instead Garbett wanted the structure of
his argument to reflect a metaphysics which would enforce his analogy between
architecture and nature, which would support his quest for a science of architecture modelled on an
accepted theological paradigm and which would mirror his sense of hierarchy.
The overall structure of Garbett's
book then is more closely related to James Fergusson's Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, More
Especially with Reference to Architecture of 1849. This book
represented a truly heroic attempt to overhaul the systematisation of human
knowledge in order to reassess the place of aesthetics and architecture within
the great scheme of things.
[11]
If beauty was to be understood properly, then all experience needed to be
rearranged according to a new hierarchy of values. Everything had to be
subjected to new priorities. In short, a new metaphysics had to be put in place
if the true importance of beauty and architecture to society and the process of
civilisation was to be fully understood. Fergusson's system thus produced a
page of contents deliberately reminiscent of Diderot's diagrammatic
representation of the division of human knowledge in his Prospectus of 1750 and their common source in Bacon's
Tree of knowledge. [12]
The contents: a chain of beauty
Garbett similarly allows
his book to be structured according to a metaphysical view of the world. He uses
another model however, on that is more directly related to the source of all
hierarchies of knowledge and value, namely, the Neo-Platonic chain of being
ultimately related to Plato's theory of forms. Garbett did not, of course, have
to go back quite that far. The weltanschauung inspired by natural theology, that
is by William Paley and the Bridgewater Treatises, had reaffirmed the Chain of
Being as an appropriate model for theoretical discourse.
[13] This chain
is clearly reflected in the structuring of Garbett's arguments. The anabatic
sequence of values puts in place a chain of beauty which reverses back up the ladder
to the highest regions; to the sublime and the true, to the point, that is, at
which architecture is semantically completed by embodying all its possible
perfections. Garbett's definition of good
architecture participates in many qualities also accorded to the divine.
As has already been observed,
Garbett's Treatise was
conceived in two volumes which were printed together. That this division was
conceptual rather than practical is not only shown by the fact that the two
volumes were never printed apart, but also because the book is clearly composed
of two segments. The first is a-historical and normative. Its arguments
incorporate fragments from the entire spectrum of the human and physical
sciences. The other section is historical. It attempts to re-interpret events
and developments according to the norms established by Garbett and, by
extension, pushes his system into the future, projecting a vision of directions
and warnings relative to his prescriptions.
[14]
The first part of Garbett's Treatise then, is composed of four
chapters arranged according to a Jacob's ladder. The first chapter establishes
the main theme and anticipates some aspects of the conclusion. The second,
third and fourth chapters grapple with the implications of that main theme and
discuss each successive step in depth, working out all the possible variations:
Chapter 1: The Objects of
"Architecture Proper:" Politeness in Building; Beauty in Building;
Expression in Building; Poetry in Building
Chapter 2: The Lowest Class of Beauties in
Building: Colour; Harmonious Colouring; Repetition and Uniformity; Beauty of
Form apart from Expression Reducible to Unity and Variety; Gradation and
Contrast; Beauty of Curvature
Chapter 3: The Difference of Expression in
Forms: Opposite effects of Contrast and Gradation; Five Classes of Form; Their
Distribution; Sublimity; Picturesqueness - its relation to the above.
Chapter 4: Of Some Higher Beauties in
Architecture: Imitation of Nature; Imitation of Masters, and Originality;
Honesty and Decorative Truth; Constructive Truth; Constructive Unity, or Unity
of Statical Design
The
second part of the Treatise
occupies as many pages and even though it is divided into only two chapters and
a postscript, there are four subjects which he discusses, arranged in
chronological order: Greek architecture, Gothic architecture, Post-Gothic
architecture and the future.
[15]
To
return to the first part of the Treatise,
the arrangement from low to high follows the advice of Sir Joshua Reynolds:
It is the natural
instruction to teach first what is obvious and perceptible to the senses, and
from thence proceed gradually to notions large, liberal, and complete, such as
comprise the more refined and higher excellences in art.
[16]
This
passage is quoted as the motto to the second chapter of the Treatise. Garbett's motivation for
applying this model is not purely didactic however. Such an arrangement of the
issues confirms architecture's vicinity to nature, it is a natural order of things and is able to emphasise architecture's
complete dependence on natural laws. Like everything else in the world,
architecture must conform to a natural concatenated hierarchy of values, from low, that is instinctive and
animalistic, to high, that is
intellectual, poetic and, above all, civilised. This range of values is
expressed in what Garbett calls the fourfold use of architecture:
The
first use of architecture is: as a courtesy due from every one who builds
to humanity, on whose ground and in whose sight he builds; secondly, as
a further refinement of this courtesy into positive beauty, by attention to
whatever may please the mind; and preference of what may please its higher
faculties, before that which may please the lower, when they are incompatible
(the justice of this preference constituting the difference between right and
wrong in art, commonly called good and bad taste); thirdly, as a mode of
conveying to the mind definite emotions, suited to, and even indicative of, the
character and general destination of the work; lastly, as a means not
only of affecting, but of exalting or improving. The architecture which attains
only the first of these objects is no more than a polite art; when it
reaches the second , it becomes an ornamental art; by attaining the
third, it gains a title to be considered a fine, that is an expressive
art; in those very few of its productions in which the last purpose has been
accomplished, does it deserve to be called a high, a poetic art.
As the
first, its aim is to conciliate; as the second, to please;
as the third, to touch; and as the last, to
TEACH. [17]
These
values are arranged like the layers of an onion. Higher values can be achieved
only if the building already embraces the preceding stages towards semantic
completion. The fact that this chain runs in the opposite direction to the
Neo-Platonic theory of divine emanation, merely enforces the appropriateness of
the comparison between the Chain of Being and Garbett's structuring of his
arguments. The process of architectural reform runs parallel to the purgatorial
route of repentance. The sinner has first to atone for his or her sins. Only
after that can he or she be allowed to start on the pilgrim's progress to
religious completeness. Architecture's perfection is not situated on the apex of
a pyramidal hierarchy, it is represented by the whole pyramid. This provides
architecture with a theological paradigm. Perfection is the projection of an
architectural equivalent to the divine, from
whom all being emanates, all power proceeds; (...) Yet whom existence in its
lowest form includes.[18]
God is the icon which man has to imitate. By logical extension nature, as God's
creation, serves as the divine icon of architecture. God is a concept in which
all ontological attributes are present in perfection. That model has been
translated, quite literally, to the aesthetics of architecture. This becomes
apparent when Garbett writes that beauty consists
in perfection of any kind; so that, whether we speak of the beauties of a
building or its perfections we mean the same thing.[19]
All
the values pertaining to architecture are related to each other using spatial
metaphors. Architecture ascends from
the conciliatory or apologetic to the sensual and thence to the increasingly intellectual,
the expressive and ending with the universally didactic or poetic. In effect
this schema differs very little from the diagrammatic representations of the
universe and of the human mind one comes across, for instance, in the
illustrations of Robert Fludd. They encourage a feeling of omniscience.
Neither
the wording of Garbett's title, nor the arrangement of the book's contents are
able to convey the underlying purpose of the book. Before we can continue with
an analysis of Garbett's arguments, it is necessary to consider their end.
Every act of understanding, and every normative strategy cannot exist by
itself. Invariably they form an integral part of a cultural dialectic, they
propose the removal of culturally determined metaphysical obstacles to expose a
previous and generalised misunderstanding or ignorance. The positive and
explicit aim of the Treatise then, is
to effect a cure for something Garbett considers to be a disease. That disease
is the subject of the next chapter.
3.
H.R.
Hitchcock (1976) p. 21. The contents are given as follows: 1. The Orders by
W.H. Leeds; 2. Styles of Various Countries, by T. Bury; 3. Design in Architecture,-
Its Principles, By E.L. Garbett, and John Bullock himself added a glossary of
terms.
4.
The reader is supposed to
have acquired from the two former volumes of this series [No. 16, Orders of
Architecture and Their Aesthetic Principles. by W.H. Leeds; No. 17, Styles of
Architecture, by T. Bury] a general notion of the history of this art
[architecture], of the peculiarities of its various styles, and of the
nomenclature of its features of its two great systems-the Classic and the
Gothic: but should any terms new to him occur, "Weale's Rudimentary
Dictionary of Terms used in Architecture, &c. "is at hand. in: Treatise, p. vi.
5.
Ralph
Waldo Emerson (1960) p. 345. The complete list of recommendations includes:
Plutarch's Morals, Coleridge's Literary Biography, a Life of Lessing
and Fergusson's Architecture, Morte d'Arthure, Muller's Bhagvad Geeta, and Arnold's Essays.
6.
The
phrase is Alfred Bartholomew's praising his own working methods. Specifications, Preface, § X.
7.
Laurence
Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram
Shandy, Gentleman, (1962) Book VI, Chapter 38, p. 368-69. The reader is
given the opportunity to draw the widow Wadman to your own mind. An empty page is provided, and the reader is
encouraged to draw her as like your
mistress as you can-as unlike your wife as your conscience will let you. At
the bottom of the empty page, when the reader has conceived his own ideal
widow, Sterne writes: Was there anything
in Nature so sweet!.. Then, Dear Sir, How could my uncle Toby resist it? Thrice
happy book! thou wilt have one page, at least, within thy covers which
...ignorance cannot misrepresent.
8.
Garbett's
title fits in a particular tradition. Compare William Mitford's Principles of Design in Architecture Traced
in Observations on Buildings, In a Series of Letters to A Friend, (2nd ed.,
1824). With its determined empiricism, this title might have served as a model
for Garbett's title even though the latter has a more rationalistic approach.
Joseph Gwilt's, The Rudiments of
Architecture of 1826, has an obvious formal equivalence. Another title
which tries to be as precise, if not more so, is Peter Legh's The Music of the Eye; or, Essays on the
Principles of the Beauty and Perfection of Architecture, as Founded on and
Deduced from Reason and Analogy, and Adapted to What May be Traced of the
Ancient Theories of Taste, in the Three First Chapters of Vitruvius; Written
with a View to Restore Architecture to the Dignity it had in Ancient Greece,
(1831). However, this title is more catholic in its reliance on authority and
allies itself not to a modern empiricism but to a scholastic rationalism. As
far as Pugin's, The True Principles of
Pointed or Christian Architecture of 1841 is concerned one could argue that
his title fits better within the doctrinal spheres of the catholic church.
Ruskin's Seven Lamps of Architecture
of 1849 manages to convey a missionary evangelism allied more directly to the
bible itself. In Pugin's title the word 'True' falls back on the word Christian
for its justification. In James Fergusson's An
Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, More Especially
with Reference to Architecture, 1849 the word true does not have the same
fervency as it is preceded by an historical inquiry. Both "truths"
are Christian truths. All these titles convey a generic resemblance which
transcends the limits of their subject-matter.
9.
Susan
Faye Cannon (1978) Especially the Chapter entitled "Science as Norm of
Truth", pp. 1-28. also George Levine (1990) pp. 225-261. Comparing the
titles of Ruskin's Seven Lamps and
Garbett's Rudimentary Treatise one is
tempted to observe that Ruskin's title is of a definite revelatory character,
perhaps referring back to his thorough training in bible-reading and the
admitted influence that had on his use of language. cf. Praeterita, Vol I, chapter
2. It is obvious that the bible also had its effects on his techniques of
persuasion, while Garbett shows a clear affinity to methods and the logic of
natural theology with its, for Garbett so desirable, synthesis between science
and religion. Ruskin's individual lamps and his free use of biblical references
contrast markedly with Garbett's complete lack of them. The one biblical quote
he does use, noli mi tangere shows up
a very curious warp in his thinking.
11.
It shares that aspect with Ruskin. For Ruskin, however poetic his
prose, is a numerical thinker at heart, interested in controlling experience
mathematically. His lamp of beauty, for example, establishes a proportionate
relationship between the frequency of form occurring in nature and their
suitability to imitation, or rather copying, which can be expressed in the
equation, Beauty = Form x Frequency in Nature. Earlier, in the first volume of
his Modern Painters he had made the
greatness of a work of art become subject to a very crude variation of
Bentham's felicific calculus, whereby greatness was to be measured from the
greatest number of great ideas that a given work contained. For James Fergusson
(1808-1886) See N. Pevsner (1972) pp. 238-251, Maurice Craig (1968) pp.
140-152, Peter Kohane (1993) and Cymbre Raub (1993).
14.
cf. M. Tafuri (1978 ) p. 141. We could
say..that operative criticism plans past history by projecting it towards the
future.
15.
Chapter 5: Examination of the Greek Architecture: Unity of General
Design; Constructive and General Truth in the Doric Order; Its Optical an
Æsthetic Corrections; The other Orders and their Ornaments. Chapter 6:
Examination of the Gothic Architecture; I. Of Arcuation as its Main Essential;
II. Of the General Forms of Gothic Buildings; III. The Details -their
Constructive and Decorative Truth; Remarks on the Decline of the Gothic System.
(This is by far the longest chapter in the book covering over a quarter of the
264 pages.) Remarks on Post-Gothic Architecture. Concluding Remarks.